Everything about Yuezhi totally explained
Yuezhi (
Chinese: 月氏, also 月支,
Wade-Giles:
Yüeh-Chih) or
Da Yuezhi (
Chinese:大月氏, also 大月支, "Great Yuezhi") "The Great Clan of Yue", is the Chinese name for an ancient
Central Asian people. There are numerous theories about the derivation of the name Yuezhi and none has yet found general acceptance. In Chinese the name translates literally as 'Moon Clan.' According to Zhang Guang-da the name Yuezhi is a transliteration of their own name for themselves, the
Visha (the tribes), being called the Vijaya in
Tibetan.. They are believed by most scholars to have been an
Indo-European people, and may have been the same as or closely related to the
Tocharians (Τοχάριοι) of Classical sources. They were originally settled in the arid grasslands of the eastern
Tarim Basin area, in what is today
Xinjiang and western
Gansu, in
China, before they migrated to
Transoxiana,
Bactria and then northern
South Asia, where they formed the
Kushan Empire.
Origins
The first known reference to the Yuezhi was made in
645 BCE by the Chinese
Guan Zhong in his
Guanzi 管子(Guanzi Essays: 73: 78: 80: 81). The dates of this book are disputed however, and it may date to as late as 1st century BCE. The book described the Yuzhi 禺氏, or Niuzhi 牛氏, as a people from the north-west who supplied
jade to the Chinese from the nearby mountains of Yuzhi 禺氏 at
Gansu. The supply of jade from the Tarim Basin from ancient times is indeed well documented archaeologically: "It is well known that ancient Chinese rulers had a strong attachment to jade. All of the jade items excavated from the tomb of Fuhao 妇好 of the
Shang dynasty, more than 750 pieces, were from
Khotan in modern
Xinjiang. As early as the mid-first millennium BCE the Yuezhi engaged in the jade trade, of which the major consumers were the rulers of agricultural China." (Liu (2001), pp. 267-268). The suffix "Di" or "Zhi" (Chinese:氐) was generally used to describe the
Di people, "Western barbarians", in Chinese annals.
According to former USSR scholar Zuev, there was a Queen among the large Yuezhi confederation who added to her possessions the lands of the
Tochar (Pinyin:
Daxia) on the headwaters of the
Huanghe circa 3rd century BCE. According him, the Chinese chronicles began referring to the queen's tribe as the Great Yuezhi (Da Yuezhi), and to call the Daxia/Tochars the Lesser Yuezhi (Pinyin: Xiao Yuezhi). Together, they were simply called Yuezhi. In the 5th century CE, a scholar and translator monk Kumarajiva, while translating texts into Chinese, used the name "Yuezhi" to translate "Tochar". In the middle of the 2nd century BCE the Yuezhi conquered
Bactria, and the ancient Greek authors inform us that the conquerors of Bactria were the
Asii and
Tochari tribes. Bactria then in the Chinese chronicles began to be called the country of Daxia, for example
Tocharistan and the language of Bactria/Tocharistan began to be called "Tocharian"."
The Yuezhi are also documented in detail in Chinese historical accounts, in particular the 2nd-
1st century BCE "Records of the Great Historian", or
Shiji, by
Sima Qian. According to these accounts:
» "The Yuezhi originally lived in the area between the
Qilian or Heavenly Mountains (
Tian Shan) and
Dunhuang, but after they were defeated by the
Xiongnu they moved far away to the west, beyond
Dayuan, where they attacked and conquered the people of
Daxia and set up the court of their king on the northern bank of the Gui [=
Oxus] River. A small number of their people who were unable to make the journey west sought refuge among the
Qiang barbarians in the Southern Mountains, where they're known as the Lesser Yuezhi.",
The
Qilian and
Dunhuang original homeland of the Yuezhi have recently been argued not to refer to the current locations in
Gansu, but to the
Tian Shan range and the
Turfan region, 1,000 km to the west, Dunhuang identified with a mountain named
Dunhong listed in the
Shanhaijing.
The Yuezhi may have been a
Caucasoid people, as indicated by the portraits of their kings on the coins they struck following their exodus to
Transoxiana (2nd-1st century BCE), and especially the coins they struck in India as
Kushans (1st-3rd century CE). However, no direct records for the name of Yuezhi rulers are known to exist (only Chinese accounts mention the name), and some doubt on the accuracy of their first coins.
Ancient Chinese sources do describe the existence of "white people with long hair" (The
Bai people of the
Shan Hai Jing) beyond their northwestern border, and the very well preserved
Tarim mummies with Caucasian features found at the ancient oasis on the
Silk Road,
Niya, often with reddish or blond hair, today displayed at the
Ürümqi Museum and dated to the
3rd century BCE, have been found in precisely the same area of the Tarim Basin.
The
Indo-European Tocharian languages also have been attested in the same geographical area, and although the first known epigraphic evidence dates to the 6th century CE, the degree of differentiation between Tocharian A and Tocharian B, and the absence of Tocharian language remains beyond that area, tends to indicate that a common Tocharian language existed in the same area of Yuezhi settlement during the second half of the
1st millennium BCE.
According to one theory, the Yuezhi were probably part of the large migration of Indo-European speaking peoples who were settled in eastern Central Asia (possibly as far as
Gansu) at that time. The nomadic
Ordos culture, who lived in northern China east of the Yuezhi, are another example. Also the Caucasian mummies of
Pazyryk, probably
Scythian in origin, are located around 1,500 kilometers north-west of the Yuezhi, and dated also to around the 3rd century BCE.
According to Han accounts, the Yuezhi "were flourishing" during the time of the first great Chinese
Qin emperor, but were regularly in conflict with the neighbouring tribe of the
Xiongnu to the northeast.
The Yuezhi exodus
The Yuezhi sometimes practiced the exchange of hostages with the
Xiongnu, and at one time were hosts to
Modu Shanyu (Ch:冒頓), son of the Xiongnu leader. Modu stole a horse and escaped when the Yuezhi tried to kill him in retaliation for an attack by his father. Modu subsequently became ruler of the Xiongnu after killing his father.
Around
177 BCE, led by one of Modu's tribal chiefs, the Xiongnu invaded Yuezhi territory in the
Gansu region and achieved a crushing victory. Modu boasted in a letter to the Han emperor that due to "the excellence of his fighting men, and the strength of his horses, he's succeeded in wiping out the Yuezhi, slaughtering or forcing to submission every number of the tribe". The son of Modu,
Jizhu, subsequently killed the king of the Yuezhi and, in accordance with nomadic traditions, "made a
drinking cup out of his skull."(Shiji 123. Watson1961:231).
Following Chinese sources, a large part of the Yuezhi people therefore fell under the domination of the Xiongnu, and these may have been the ancestors of the Tocharian speakers attested in the 6th century CE. A very small group of Yuezhi fled south to the territory of the Proto-
Tibetan
Qiang, and came to be known to the Chinese as the "Small Yuezhi". According to the
Hanshu, they only numbered around 150 families.
Finally, a large group of the Yuezhi fled from the
Tarim Basin/ Gansu area towards the northwest, first settling in the
Ili valley, immediately north of the
Tian Shan mountains, where they confronted and defeated the Sai (
Sakas or
Scythians): "The Yuezhi attacked the king of the Sai who moved a considerable distance to the south and the Yuezhi then occupied his lands" (Han Shu 61 4B). The Sai undetook their own migration, which was to lead them as far as
Kashmir, after travelling through a "Suspended Crossing' (probably the
Khunjerab Pass between present-day
Xinjiang and northern
Pakistan). The Sakas ultimately established an
Indo-Scythian kingdom in northern India.
After
155 BCE, the
Wusun, in alliance with the Xiongnu and out of revenge from an earlier conflict, managed to disloge the Yuezhi, forcing them to move south. The Yuezhi crossed the neighbouring urban civilization of the
Dayuan in
Ferghana, and settled on the northern bank of the
Oxus, in the region of
Transoxiana, in modern-day
Tajikistan and
Uzbekistan, just north of the Hellenistic
Greco-Bactrian kingdom. The Greek city of
Alexandria on the Oxus was apparently burnt to the ground by the Yuezhi around
145 BCE.
Settlement in Transoxiana
The Yuezhi were visited by a Chinese mission, led by
Zhang Qian in
126 BCE, that was seeking an offensive alliance with the Yuezhi to counter the Xiongnu threat to the north. Although the request for an alliance was denied by the son of the slain Yuezhi king, who preferred to maintain peace in Transoxiana rather than to seek revenge, Zhang Qian made a detailed account, reported in the
Shiji, that gives considerable insight into the situation in
Central Asia at that time.
Zhang Qian, who spent a year with the Yuezhi and in
Bactria, relates that "the Great Yuezhi live 2,000 or 3,000
li (832-1,247 kilometers) west of
Dayuan (
Ferghana), north of the Gui (
Oxus) river. They are bordered on the south by
Daxia (
Bactria), on the west by Anxi (
Parthia), and on the north by
Kangju (beyond the middle
Jaxartes). They are a nation of
nomads, moving from place to place with their herds, and their customs are like those of the Xiongnu. They have some 100,000 or 200,000 archer warriors."
Although they remained north of the Oxus for a while, they apparently obtained the submission of the
Greco-Bactrian kingdom to the south of the Oxus. The Yuezhi were organized into five major tribes, each led by a
yabgu, or tribal chief, and known to the Chinese as
Xiūmì (Ch:休密) in Western Wakhān and Zibak,
Guishuang (Ch:貴霜) in
Badakhshan and the adjoining territories north of the
Oxus,
Shuangmi (Ch:雙靡) in the region of Shughnan,
Xidun (Ch:肸頓) in the region of
Balk, and
Dūmì (Ch:都密) in the region of
Termez
A description of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom was made by
Zhang Qian after the conquest by Yuezhi:
» "
Daxia (
Greco-Bactria) is located over 2,000
li southwest of
Dayuan, south of the Gui (
Oxus) river. Its people cultivate the land and have cities and houses. Their customs are like those of
Ta-Yuan. It has no great ruler but only a number of petty chiefs ruling the various cities. The people are poor in the use of arms and afraid of battle, but they're clever at commerce. After the Great Yuezhi moved west and attacked the lands, the entire country came under their sway. The population of the country is large, numbering some 1,000,000 or more persons. The capital is called the city of Lanshi (
Bactra) (modern
Balkh) and has a market where all sorts of goods are bought and sold."
In a sweeping analysis of the physical types and cultures of Central Asia that he visited in
126 BCE, Zhang Qian reports that "although the states from
Dayuan west to Anxi (Parthia), speak rather different languages, their customs are generally similar and their languages mutually intelligible. The men have deep-set eyes and profuse beards and whiskers. They are skilful at commerce and will haggle over a fraction of a cent. Women are held in great respect, and the men make decisions on the advice of their women."
Invasion of Bactria
In
124 BCE the Yuezhi were apparently involved in a war against the Parthians, in which the Parthian king
Artabanus I of Parthia was wounded and died:
» "During the war against the Tokharians, he (Artabanus) was wounded in the arm and died immediately" (Justin, Epitomes, XLII,2,2:
"Bello Tochariis inlato, in bracchio vulneratus statim decedit").
Some time after
124 BCE, possibly disturbed by further incursions of rivals from the north, and apparently vanquished by the Parthian king
Mithridates II, successor to Artabanus, the Yuezhi moved south to
Bactria. Bactria had been conquered by the
Macedonians under
Alexander the Great in
330 BCE, and since settled by the
Hellenistic civilization of the
Seleucids and the
Greco-Bactrians for two centuries.
This event is recorded in Classical Greek sources, when
Strabo presented them as a
Scythian tribe, and explained that the Tokharians -- together with the Assianis, Passianis and Sakaraulis -- took part in the destruction of the
Greco-Bactrian kingdom in the second half of the
2nd century BCE:
» "Most of the
Scythians, beginning from the
Caspian Sea, are called
Dahae Scythae, and those situated more towards the east
Massagetae and
Sacae; the rest have the common appellation of Scythians, but each separate tribe has its peculiar name. All, or the greatest part of them, are nomads. The best known tribes are those who deprived the Greeks of
Bactriana, the Asii, Pasiani,
Tochari, and Sacarauli, who came from the country on the other side of the
Jaxartes, opposite the Sacae and
Sogdiani." (
Strabo,
11-8-1
)
The last Greco-Bactrian king
Heliocles I retreated and moved his capital to the Kabul Valley. The eastern part of Bactria was occupied by
Pashtun people.
As they settled in Bactria from around
125 BCE, the Yuezhi became Hellenized to some degree, as suggested by their adoption of the Greek alphabet and by some remaining coins, minted in the style of the
Greco-Bactrian kings, with the text in Greek. The area of Bactria they settled came to be known as
Tokharistan, since the Yuezhi were called "
Tocharians" by the Greeks.
Commercial relations with China also flourished, as many Chinese missions were sent throughout the
1st century BCE: "The largest of these embassies to foreign states numbered several hundred persons, while even the smaller parties included over 100 members... In the course of one year anywhere from five to six to over ten parties would be sent out." (
Shiji, trans. Burton Watson).
The
Hou Hanshu also records the visit of Yuezhi envoys to the Chinese capital in
2 BCE, who gave oral teachings on
Buddhist sutras to a student, suggesting that some Yuezhi already followed the
Buddhist faith during the 1st century BCE (Baldev Kumar (1973)).
A later Chinese annotation in
Shiji made by Zhang Shoujie during the early 8th century quoted Wan Zhen's
Strange Things from the Southern Region (a now-lost text of from the
Wu kingdom) describes the
Kushans as living in the same general area north of India, in cities of Greco-Roman style, and with sophisticated handicraft. The quote are dubious, as Wan Zhen probably never visited the Yuezhi kingdom through the
Silk Road, though he might had gathered his information from the trading ports in the coastal south.
Expansion into the Hindu-Kush
The area of the
Hindu-Kush (
Paropamisadae) was ruled by the western
Indo-Greek king until the reign of
Hermaeus (reigned c.
90 BCE–
70 BCE). After that date, no Indo-Greek kings are known in the area, which was probably overtaken by the neighbouring Yuezhi, who had been in relation with the Greeks for a long time. According to
Bopearachchi, no trace of
Indo-Scythians occupation (nor coins of major Indo-Scythian rulers such as
Maues or
Azes I) have been found in the
Paropamisadae and western
Gandhara.
As they'd done in Bactria with their copying of
Greco-Bactrian coinage, the Yuezhi copied the coinage of
Hermeaus on a vast scale, up to around
40 CE, when the design blends into the coinage of the
Kushan king
Kujula Kadphises.
The first presumed, and documented, Yuezhi prince is
Sapadbizes (probably a yabgu's prince of Yuezhi confederation), who ruled around 20 BCE, and minted in Greek and in the same style as the western Indo-Greek kings.
Foundation of the Kushan empire
By the end of the
1st century BCE, one of the five tribes of the Yuezhi, the Guishuang (Ch: 貴霜, origin of name
Kushan adopted in the West), managed to take control of the Yuezhi confederation. According to some theories, the Guishuang may have been distinct from the Yuezhi, possibly of
Saka origins. From that point, the Yuezhi extended their control over the northwestern area of the Indian subcontinent, founding the
Kushan Empire, which was to rule the region for several centuries. The Yuezhi came to be known as
Kushan among Western civilizations, however the Chinese kept calling them Yuezhi throughout their historical records over a period of several centuries.
The Yuezhi/ Kushans expanded to the east during the 1st century CE, to found the
Kushan Empire. The first Kushan emperor
Kujula Kadphises ostensibly associated himself with
Hermaeus on his coins, suggesting that he may have been one of his descendants by alliance, or at least wanted to claim his legacy.
The unification of the Yuezhi tribes and the rise of the Kushan is documented in the Chinese Historical chronicle
Hou Hanshu:
» "More than a hundred years later, the
xihou (Ch:翖侯, "Allied Prince") of Guishuang (
Badakhshan and the adjoining territories north of the Oxus), named Qiujiu Que (Ch: 丘就卻,
Kujula Kadphises) attacked and exterminated the four other xihou ("Allied Princes"). He set himself up as king of a kingdom called Guishuang (
Kushan). He invaded
Anxi (
Parthia) and took the Gaofu (Ch:高附,
Kabul) region. He also defeated the whole of the kingdoms of Puda and Jibin (Ch: 罽賓,
Kapiśa-
Gandhāra). Qiujiu Que (Kujula Kadphises) was more than eighty years old when he died.
» His son,
Yan Gaozhen (Ch:閻高珍) (
Vima Takto), became king in his place. He returned and defeated
Tianzhu (Northwestern India) and installed a General to supervise and lead it. The Yuezhi then became extremely rich. All the kingdoms call [theirking] the Guishuang (Kushan) king, but the
Han call them by their original name, Da Yuezhi." (
Hou Hanshu, trans. John Hill, ).
The Yuezhi/Kushan integrated
Buddhism into a pantheon of many deities, became great promoters of
Mahayana Buddhism, and their interactions with Greek civilization helped the
Gandharan culture and
Greco-Buddhism flourish.
During the 1st and 2nd century, the Kushan Empire expanded militarily to the north and occupied parts of the
Tarim Basin, their original grounds, putting them at the center of the lucrative Central Asian commerce with the
Roman Empire. When the Han Dynasty desired to advance north, Emperor Wu sent the explorer
Zhang Qian to see the kingdoms to the west and to ally with the Yuezhi people, in order to fight the
Xiongnu Mongol tribe. The Yuezhi continued to collaborate militarily with the Chinese against nomadic incursion, particularly with the Chinese general
Ban Chao against the Sogdians in
84 CE, when the latter were trying to support a revolt by the king of
Kashgar. Around
85 CE, they also assisted the Chinese general in an attack on
Turfan, east of the Tarim Basin.
In recognition for their support to the Chinese, the Kushans requested, but were denied, a
Han princess, even after they'd sent presents to the Chinese court. In retaliation, they marched on Ban Chao in
86 CE with a force of 70,000, but, exhausted by the expedition, were finally defeated by the smaller Chinese force. The Kushans retreated and paid tribute to the Chinese Empire during the reign of the Chinese emperor
Han He (89-106).
Later, the Yuezhi/Kushans established a kingdom centered on
Kashgar around
120 CE, and introduced the
Brahmi script, the Indian
Prakrit language for administration, and
Greco-Buddhist art which developed into
Serindian art.
Benefiting from this territorial expansion, the Yuezhi/Kushans were among the first to introduce
Buddhism to northern and northeastern Asia, by direct missionary efforts and the translation of
Buddhist scriptures into Chinese. Major Yuezhi missionary and translators included
Lokaksema and
Dharmaraksa, who went to China and established translation bureaus, thereby being at the center of the
Silk Road transmission of Buddhism.
The Chinese kept referring to the Kushans as Da Yuezhi throughout the centuries. In the
Sanguozhi (三國志, chap 3), it's recorded that in
229 CE "The king of the Da Yuezhi, Bodiao 波調 (
Vasudeva I), sent his envoy to present tribute, and His Majesty (Emperor
Cao Rui) granted him the title of "King of the Da Yuezhi Intimate with the
Wei (魏)."
Presumed Yuezhi rulers
Further Information
Get more info on 'Yuezhi'.
|
External Link Exchanges
Do you know how hard it is to get a link from a large encyclopaedia? Well we're different and will prove it. To get a link from us just add the following HTML to your site on a relevant page:
<a href="http://yuezhi.totallyexplained.com">Yuezhi Totally Explained</a>
Then simply click through this link from your web page. Our crawlers will verify your link, extract the title of your web page and instantly add a link back to it. If you like you can remove the words Totally Explained and embed the link in article text.
As long as your link remains in place, we'll keep our link to you right here. Please play fair - our crawlers are watching. Your site must be closely related to this one's topic. Any kind of spamming, dubious practises or removing the link will result in your link from us being dropped and, potentially, your whole site being banned. |
